Duane Hamacher interviewed by Tamson Pietsch. Originally published on The Conversation on 19 December 2014, 11.35am AEDT.
Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander people have between 40,000 and 60,000 years of pre-colonial history that includes stories of constellations they observed in the night sky and traditions that align with the stars and the moon. But until recently, these stories were largely dismissed by the scientific community.
Researchers are now finding that Indigenous oral traditions contain vast environmental and scientific knowledge. These complex knowledge systems have helped Indigenous people survive Australia for tens of thousands of years.
Tamson Pietsch speaks with cultural astronomer Duane Hamacher about Indigenous astronomy and its complex relationship to history, culture and applied scientific knowledge.
I am frequently asked how to go about studying cultural astronomy and pursuing a career in the field. Due to its interdisciplinary nature, knowing what to study and how to build a foundation in this area is not as straightforward as one might think. This blog post will serve as a guide to studying cultural astronomy at the university level, from undergrad to PhD. I will also list some of the career options for graduates in this field. This is based on my knowledge and experience. What is Cultural Astronomy?
Cultural astronomy is the academic study of the ways in which various cultures understood and utilized the celestial realm. It is a social science informed by the physical sciences. Since it involves human perception of the natural world, it is grounded in the social sciences. But as it utilises information and knowledge about the natural world, it is informed by the physical and natural sciences.
Cultural astronomy is generally divided into two sub-disciplines: archaeoastronomy and ethnoastronomy.
Archaeoastronomy is the study of the astronomical practices and beliefs of past cultures. It relies heavily on the archaeological record and has traditionally focused on alignments in monuments, structures, and stone arrangements. This approach relies heavily on archaeological surveys, precision measurements, and statistical analysis.
Archaeoastronomical studies at Chankillo in Peru.
Ethnoastronomyis the study of the astronomical practices and beliefs of contemporary cultures, with a focus on Indigenous peoples. It relies heavily on the the ethnographic and historical records and involves learning about human understanding of the sky directly from the people themselves, particularly Indigenous elders.
Ethnoastronomical work with Aboriginal elder Bill Yidumduma Harney.
The study of astronomy in culture is a growing field of interest, and an increasing number of masters and doctoral degrees are being awarded with theses and dissertations in the field. The graph below shows the increase trend in graduate degrees with theses/dissertations in cultural astronomy being awarded between 1965 and 2004 (McCluskey, 2004).
Dissertations and Theses in Cultural Astronomy (1965-2004)
Cultural astronomy is highly interdisciplinary, so could consider a number of different majors and degree programs, depending on your personal interests. If you want to learn about astronomical alignments in temples, megalithic structures, or ancient cities, archaeoastronomy is your area and archaeology and classics are suitable fields of study. If you are interested in learning about contemporary Indigenous cultures, anthropology and sociology are a better option. If your interest lies in interpreting ancient texts, linguistics and languages would be a suitable option. Very few universities have any structured programs in cultural astronomy, and only a handful offer courses on the subject (a list of such courses will be the focus of a future post). So do not expect to find a university where you can complete a full program in cultural astronomy... you'll have to build your own.
What should I study at the Undergraduate Level?
Regardless of which area of cultural astronomy you choose to pursue, you need a grounding in the social sciences, and a working knowledge of astronomy. Basic knowledge in other sciences, such as geology, ecology, and biology, are also useful. Skills such as surveying, computer programming, and statistics are also highly valuable. Majors or fields of study for each sub-discipline are given below. This is not an exhaustive list. It only serves as a general guide. Archaeoastronomy: Archaeology, Anthropology, Ancient History, Classics, History & Philosophy of Science, Cultural Heritage Management. Note: knowledge of statistics and surveying are essential.
Ethnoastronomy: Anthropology, Sociology, Indigenous Studies, History & Philosophy of Science, Environmental Humanities, Religious Studies. You would be best suited to take either a Major in a social science and a Minor in astronomy/physics, or double Major in both social science and astronomy/physics. A single major in the social sciences will not generally provide you with the scientific foundation necessary to work in the field, and vice versa for a major in the sciences. A dual Major or double degree will be very intensive but is the best overall option. A dual BA would be easiest (e.g. BA Anthropology/BA Astronomy). However, a BA/BS provides the widest breadth and opens up the most opportunities (e.g. BA Anthropology/BS Astronomy).
[A colleague at Macquarie University in Sydney completed a dual degree to pursue his interests in Egyptian astronomy. He completed a BA in Ancient History and a BS in Astrophysics, with an Honours year studying Egyptology. It was hard work, but he's glad he did it!]
What should I study at the Graduate/Postgraduate Level?
If you want to pursue a career in cultural astronomy, you will need to complete a PhD.
You will be best suited in a social science or humanities program. It is very important to carefully choose a university and department that will support the research, and a knowledgeable, able, and supportive supervisor. You also much carefully choose the field of study in which the degree will be awarded. "Studies" programs tend to be more broad, while "traditional" programs (e.g. anthropology, archaeology) are more narrowly focused.
PhDs in the sciences with a cultural astronomy thesis topic are rare. A study in 2004 showed that of 79 masters and doctoral degrees awarded with theses in some area of cultural astronomy, only 3 were awarded through physics/astronomy departments. This means you will be far more likely to be accepted into a PhD program through the social sciences than the physical sciences.
Graduate degrees awarded with theses in cultural astronomy, divided into disciplines (1965-2004).
Career Opportunities
It
should be made very clear that cultural astronomy is a tiny academic
field - only a handful of people in the world have managed to carve out a career in this discipline - and the chances of getting a job in that area are incredibly slim. That is the
advice my supervisors gave me. But it is possible to study cultural astronomy
and make a career out of it… I did. You simply have to carve a niche, strategise your career,
and maximize your opportunities. Just remember that nothing is guaranteed and academia is brutally competitive.
There
are numerous employment opportunities that will utilize your skills and
knowledge set, although the job may not entail further cultural astronomy research.
These include:
Research and/or Teaching Academic
TAFE/Community College Instructor
Cultural Heritage Management
Archaeological and Anthropological Consultant
Education and Curriculum Developer
Museum or Gallery Curator
Outreach Officer
Astronomy Educator
Tour Guide
Tourism Consultant
Media and Communication
Journalism
Policy Development
Journal/Magazine Editor
School Teacher
Administration
Park Ranger
Technical Writer
Analyst (for those with high maths/stats skills)
So if this is a subject you wish to pursue... go for it. But be warned that the chances of landing a career in the discipline are very small. But it is a very exciting field in which to work and provides you with broad skills that can be used in a number of careers.
Indigenous Australian practices, developed and honed over thousands of years, weave science with storytelling. In this Indigenous science series, we’ll look at different aspects of First Australians' traditional life and uncover the knowledge behind them – starting today with astronomy.
This article contains the names of Aboriginal people who have passed away.
Night sky over Lake Tyrrel in Western Victoria – home of the Wergaia people. Alex Cherney, CC BY-NC-ND
Indigenous Australians have been developing complex knowledge systems for tens of thousands of years. These knowledge systems - which seek to understand, explain, and predict nature - are passed to successive generations through oral tradition.
As Ngarinyin elder David Bungal Mowaljarlai explains: “Everything under creation […] is represented in the ground and in the sky.” For this reason, astronomy plays a significant role in these traditions.
Western science and Indigenous knowledge systems both try to make sense of the world around us but tend to be conceptualised rather differently. The origin of a natural feature may be explained the same in Indigenous knowledge systems and Western science, but are couched in very different languages.
A story recounted by Aunty Mavis Malbunka, a custodian of the Western Arrernte people of the Central Desert, tells how long ago in the Dreaming, a group of women took the form of stars and danced a corroboree (ceremony) in the Milky Way.
One of the women put her baby in a wooden basket (coolamon) and placed him on the edge of the Milky Way. As the women danced, the baby slipped off and came tumbling to Earth. When the baby and coolamon fell, they hit the ground, driving the rocks upward. The coolamon covered the baby, hiding him forever, and the baby’s parents – the Morning and Evening Stars – continue to search for their lost child today.
If you look at the evening winter sky, you will see the falling coolamon in the sky, below the Milky Way, as the arch of stars in the Western constellation Corona Australis – the Southern Crown.
The place where the baby fell is a ring-shaped mountain range 5km wide and 150m high. The Arrernte people call it Tnorala. It is the remnant of a giant crater that formed 142 million years ago, when a comet or asteroid struck the Earth, driving the rocks upward.
When the Pleiades star cluster rises just before the morning sun, it signifies the start of winter to the Pitjantjatjara people of the Central Desert and tells them that dingoes are breeding and will soon be giving birth to pups.
The evening appearance of the celestial shark, Baidam traced out by the stars of the Big Dipper (in Ursa Major) tells Torres Strait Islanders that they need to plant their gardens with sugarcane, sweet potato and banana.
When the nose of Baidam touches the horizon just after sunset, the shark breeding season has begun and people should stay out of the water as it is very dangerous!
Torres Strait Islanders use constellations, such as the shark ‘Baidam’ pictured here, for practical purposes.Brian Robinson
Torres Strait Islanders' close attention to the night sky is further demonstrated in their use of stellar scintillation (twinkling), which enables them to determine the amount of moisture and turbulence in the atmosphere. This allows them to predict weather patterns and seasonal change. Islanders distinguish planets from stars because planets do not twinkle.
In Wergaia traditions of western Victoria, the people once faced a drought and food was scarce. Facing starvation, a woman named Marpeankurric set out in search of tucker for the group. After searching high and low, she found an ant nest and dug up thousands of nutritious ant larvae, called bittur.
This sustained the people through the winter drought. When she passed away, she ascended to the heavens and became the star Arcturus. When Marpeankurric rises in the evening, she tells the people when to harvest the ant larvae.
Arcturus (Marpeankurric – on the lower left) and the Milky Way over Lake Hart.Alex Cherney
Click to enlarge
In each case, Indigenous astronomical knowledge was used to predict changing seasons and the availability of food sources. Behind each of these brief accounts is a complex oral tradition that denotes a moral charter and informs sacred law.
An important thing to consider is that small changes in star positions due to stellar proper motion(rate of angular change in position over time) and precession (change in the orientation of Earth’s rotational axis) means that a few thousand years ago, these sky/season relationships would have been out of sync.
This means knowledge systems had to evolve over time to accommodate a changing sky. This shows us that what we know about Indigenous astronomical knowledge today is only a tiny fraction of the total knowledge developed in Australia over the past 50,000-plus years.
Moving forward
As we increase our understanding of Indigenous knowledge systems, we see that Indigenous people did develop a form of science, which is used by Indigenous and non-Indigenous people today.
Students in Albury/Wodonga learning about Indigenous astronomy through the Charcoal Nights initiative.Murray Arts
Traditional fire practices are used across the country, bush medicines are being used to treat disease, and astronomical knowledge is revealing an intellectual complexity in Indigenous traditions that has gone largely unrecognised.
It is time we show our appreciation for Indigenous knowledge and celebrate the many ways we can all learn from this vast accumulation of traditional wisdom.
New research by Dr Duane Hamacher at the University of New South Wales explores Indigenous traditions that may describe supernovae, and sets criteria for confirming supernovae in oral tradition and material culture (e.g. artefacts, rock art, etc).
Journal of Astronomical History & Heritage, Vol. 17(2), pp. 161-170.
Abstract
Novae and supernovae are rare astronomical events that would have had an influence on the sky-watching peoples who witnessed them. Although several bright novae/supernovae have been visible during recorded human history, there are many proposed but no confirmed accounts of supernovae in indigenous oral traditions or material culture. Criteria are established for confirming novae/supernovae in oral traditions and material culture, and claims from around the world are discussed to determine if they meet these criteria. Aboriginal Australian traditions are explored for possible descriptions of novae/supernovae. Although representations of supernovae may exist in Aboriginal traditions, there are currently no confirmed accounts of supernovae in Indigenous Australian oral or material traditions.
The channel features a number of videos on the subject of cultural astronomy. Most recently, Prof Holbrook uploaded talks from the recent conference of the International Society of Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture in Cape Town (aka "Oxford X"). The theme of the meeting was "Astronomy, Indigenous Knowledge, and Interpretation" and featured a number of talks on Indigenous astronomy from around the world.
You can view videos here, including those from Cape Town. Updated versions of the talks that incorporate lecture slides will be uploaded in the future. A talk on Australian Indigenous astronomy is given by Dr Duane Hamacher.
The concept of the Emu in the Sky exists in different Aboriginal groups
across Australia. These stories have different meanings, from indicators of
resources (when to collect emu eggs) to that of culture heroes. The Kamilaroi
and Euahlayi peoples, who live in the north and northwest of New South Wales,
also have traditions of an Emu in the Sky, which differed from many of the
other accounts. For the Kamilaroi and Euahlayi, the celestial Emu represents
different things at different times of the year. The Emu first becomes visible
in March. When it is fully visible in the Milky Way during April and May, it
assumes the form of a running emu (Figure 1). This represents a female emu chasing the
males during the mating season. Because emus begin laying their eggs
at this time, this appearance of the celestial Emu is a reminder that the emu
eggs are available for collection.
Figure 1
In June and July, the appearance of the Emu changes, as the legs
disappear. The Emu, which is now male, is sitting on its nest, incubating the
eggs (Figure 2). The eggs are still available for collection as a resource at this time.
Figure 2
The Kamilaroi and the Euahlayi have in common their male initiation
ceremony, called the bora. The
preferred time for the bora ceremony
is during the summer, but the planning for the ceremonies, and possibly the
layout of the bora site, may take place
in August and September. There is a strong connection between the bora ceremony and the Milky Way, where
the culture hero Baiame lives, and to
whom the ceremony is dedicated. There is also evidence that the Emu is
connected to the ceremony: as male emus rear the young, so male Aboriginal
elders nurture the young initiates into manhood.
The bora ceremonial site
usually consists of two circles, one large, and one small, connected by a
pathway. In August and September, the Emu once again changes appearance to that
of two circles in the sky, vertically aligned above the south-southwest
horizon (Figure 3). This is the direction to which most bora sites are aligned (from large circle to small circle).
Figure 3
Later in the year, around November, the Emu once again changes
appearance and becomes Gawarrgay/Gawarghoo,
a featherless Emu that travels to waterholes and looks after everything
that lives there. The Emu is now low on the horizon in the evening, so it
appears only as the “body” of the Emu. The Kamilaroi and Euahlayi say this is
because the Emu is sitting in a waterhole (Figure 4). As a consequence, the waterholes in
country are full (which is often the case in November).
Figure 4
Later in the summer, the Milky Way and the Emu dip below the horizon.
This signifies that the Emu has left the waterholes, which dries up the
waterholes.
The Kamilaroi and Euahlayi peoples have a complete story of the Emu in
the Sky, and this reflects their belief that, at one time, the sky and
everything in it was “down here”, and what is now “down here” was in the sky. This
explains the connection between the Emu in the Sky, and the emu bird on the
ground, and the connections to resource management and the ceremonial aspects
of the male initiation ceremony.
-----------------------
This post is based on research conducted by Robert Fuller, Michael
Anderson, Ray Norris, and Michelle Trudgett with Kamilaroi and Euahlayi elders
and custodians. Their paper, “The Emu SkyKnowledge of the Kamilaroi and Euahlayi Peoples” will appear in the July 2014
issue of the Journal of Astronomical
History and Heritage (Volume 17, Issue 2). You can read a preprint of the
paper here.
Australia’s Indigenous people have rich and ancient traditions relating to the stars, which informed social practices, sacred law, and ceremony, and were used for navigation, calendars, hunting, fishing, and gathering.
The Nura Gili Indigenous Programs Unit at the University of New South Wales in Sydney is the national leader in teaching and research in this area and our program is dedicated to increasing our understanding of the intricate and complex ways in which astronomical knowledge is encoded in oral traditions and material culture. We have staff, students, and educators teaching, researching, and sharing various aspects of Indigenous astronomical knowledge with the public.
[Updated 13 December 2014]
Our Teaching
Dr Duane Hamacher developed new undergraduate courses on Indigenous Science and Indigenous astronomy for Nura Gili. The units are part of the Indigenous Studies major and are available to all UNSW students as General Education units. Both courses are taught by Dr Hamacher in Semester 1 of each year. International exchange and study abroad students from any academic background are encouraged to enroll.
ATSI 2015: The Science of Indigenous Knowledge: Explore the various ways in which scientific information is encoded within traditional Indigenous knowledge systems, including astronomy, weather and climate, ecology, bush medicines, mathematical systems, geological events, and fire practices. Guest speakers, including academics and elders, bring a unique perspective the course, which uses an interactive "inverted classroom" approach.
ATSI 3006:The Astronomy of Indigenous Australians: Learn about the ways in which Indigenous understood and utilised the stars in an interactive classroom environment, develop your knowledge of naked-eye astronomy in Sydney Observatory's digital planetarium. and conduct original research and use your findings to create a planetarium show, curate an exhibit, produce educational materials, or film a documentary.
Current Research
Research at Nura Gili covers a range of projects on Indigenous astronomy. We work closely with Aboriginal and Islander communities, educators, and industry partners, and collaborate with researchers and teams at Macquarie University, Curtin University, and Griffith University. Some of our research projects are as follows:
Rediscovering Indigenous Astronomical Knowledge
Professor Martin Nakata and Dr Duane Hamacher are leading a collaboration with UNSW’s School of Computer Science & Engineering, Microsoft Research, and the State Library of New South Wales, to develop a public online repository for astronomical knowledge accessible to Indigenous communities worldwide, with additional information sourced from institutions and collections. Martin is also working closely with UNSW’s College of Fine Arts (COFA) to produce cutting-edge visual technologies for presenting this knowledge.
Exploring Astronomical Knowledge and Traditions in the Torres Strait
Dr Duane Hamacher was awarded a major grant from the Australian Research Council to study Torres Strait Islander astronomy. The purpose of this study is to chart Torres Strait Islander customs and traditions with a deep connection to the sun, moon, and stars. A well-researched and documented library of astronomical knowledge will help Islanders continue longstanding traditions in developing knowledge about their place in the world.
Wiradjuri Skies: Aboriginal Astronomy in central NSW
Trevor Leaman is conducting his PhD research on the astronomical knowledge and traditions of the Wiradjuri people of NSW. This project will see Trevor conducting ethnographic research with communities across the Central West of NSW. The project will expand our knowledge of Wiradjuri astronomy and provide educational materials for the community. Tracing Seven Sisters Dreaming Stories from Oral, to Analog, to Digital
Melissa Razuki is conducting her PhD research at RMIT (co-supervised by Dr Hamacher) charting the journey of Aboriginal Dreamings of the Seven Sisters, from their oral provenance, through their collection and capture by anthropologists and missionaries, to the manuscripts in repositories, to digitisation, and its potential repatriation back to its traditional custodians. Tasmanian Aboriginal Astronomy
Michelle Gantevoort is researching the astronomy of Aboriginal communities in Tasmania for a BA(Honours) degree. Michelle will study ethnohistoric records, archival documents, and museum artefacts to better understand the role of astronomy in Tasmanian Aboriginal communities.
'Morning Star' Ceremonies Imogen Casey is researching various Morning Star ceremonies and the role of Venus in the astronomical traditions of Aboriginal Australians for a BA(Honours) degree. Her research will also compare these ceremonies to Morning Star ceremonies in other Indigenous cultures using ethnohistoric records and archival documents. Aboriginal Astronomy on Coastal NSW
Bob Fuller is a casual researcher studying the astronomical traditions of coastal Aboriginal communities in NSW, from the Worimi and Awabakal people of the Central Coast to the Dharawal and Yuin nations of the South Coast. This will involve archival and ethnographic research, working closely with Aboriginal elders and custodians.
ATSI 3006 Research Projects
Students enrolled in ATSI 3006 are undertaking small research projects on topics in Indigenous astronomy, including
Aboriginal astronomy in the Sydney region
Aboriginal astronomy in the Melbourne region
Aboriginal astronomy in Tasmania
Cultural astronomy in the Torres Strait
Yuin Aboriginal astronomy (south coast NSW)
Music, culture, and astronomical traditions
Calendars and astronomy
Astronomical symbolism in material culture
Our Team[to be updated in mid-December 2014]
Dr Duane Hamacher Lecturer and ARC Discovery Early Career Researcher
Duane is an American and earned degrees in astrophysics and Indigenous studies, with a PhD thesis on Aboriginal astronomy. He joined Nura Gili staff to develop teaching and research programs in Indigenous astronomy and was awarded an ARC grant to study the astronomy of Torres Strait Islanders. He is also a consultant curator and astronomy educator at Sydney Observatory.
Professor Martin Nakata Professor and Director of Nura Gili Martin is an Indigenous Torres Strait Islander and the first Islander to earn a PhD in Australia. He is a national leader in Indigenous education and Indigenous knowledge, and published the bookDisciplining the Savages - Savaging the Disciplines. He leads a project with Microsoft Research and the Mitchell Library to capture and record Indigenous astronomy for the WorldWide Telescope.
Trevor Leaman PhD Candidate (FASS – Environmental Humanities) Trevor is researching the astronomy of the Wiradjuri people of central NSW under the supervision of Dr Hamacher. His Masters degree involved studying the astronomy of Aboriginal communities near Ooldea, South Australia. He earned degrees and diplomas in biology forestry, engineering, and astronomy, and is an astronomy educator at Sydney Observatory.
Tui Britton Consultant Science Communicator
Tui is a Maori descendent of the Ngapuhi iwi of northern New Zealand. She was born in Christchurch and educated in Singapore, England, America, and Australia. She earned degrees in astrophysics and is finishing a PhD in radio astronomy. Tui produces educational units and writes popular articles and books on Indigenous astronomy and astrophysics. She is also an astronomy educator at Sydney Observatory
Melissa Razuki
Michelle Gantevoort
Imogen Casey
Bob Fuller
You?!
We welcome passionate students wishing to enrol in our undergraduate units or pursue research projects for an Honours, Masters, or Doctoral degree. Interested parties should contactDr Duane Hamacher. A list of potential projects and degree information can be found here.
